- Introduction - The History & Functions of the Mogao Caves - The founding & Development of the Mogao Caves - Cave Design & Decoration - A Glossary of Prominent Mural References - Historical - Religious - buddhas - bodhisattvas - Illustration of Stories - Jataka Fables - Hetuprataya Stories - Sutras (teachings) - Traditional Chinese MythologicalThemes - Gods & Godesses - Celestial Animals - Cultural Synthesis & Development - Periodization of the Caves This section introduces the most prominent historical and religious characters and stories featured amongst the Mogao Caves' murals. Since these murals were painted over 1000 years and cover 2000 years of secular and religious history even this much abbreviated introduction is in fact quite long. The more time you spend familiarizing yourself with the caves' contents, the more you will enjoy viewing them later. Alternatively, you might think to bring this information with you when you view the caves. Historical Zhang Qian Zhang Qian is the general who first explored the Silk Road for the Emperor of China. In 138 B.C.E. Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty decided to forge military alliances with kingdoms west of his northwestern archenemy, the Xiongnu, for a joint attack. He charged General Zhang Qian with this mission, giving him one hundred of his best fighting men and valuable gifts to seal the military cabals. Thirteen years later, having been a Xiongnu hostage for ten years, General Zhang returned to the Imperial Han court with only one other member of his original party. Though he had failed to make a single alliance, General Zhang enthralled the court with information of the thirty-six commercially vibrant kingdoms west of China's frontier. Compounding the Emperor's commercial interest was his description of the magnificent horses he'd seen in the Ferghana valley (in modern day Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan); horses that were stronger and faster than any in China, horses so fine as to render the Chinese army invincible. (This breed, known as "Hanxue Ma", literally "A horse that sweats blood", was subsequently re-christened "Tianma" or "Heavenly Horse" by the Emperor.) Subsequent commercial and diplomatic ventures to the Ferghana valley failed to secure horses and so precipitated two full-scale Chinese invasions, the second of which in 102 B.C.E. succeeded in conquering all lands between China and the Ferghana Valley. The Chinese secured not only horses but also foreign markets in which to sell their goods. Xuan Zang Xuan Zang is the most famous Buddhist monk in China, immortalized in the 16th century novel Journey to the West, also known as, Monkey. Born into a poor family, Xuan Zang became a monk at the age of eleven. By the time he was twenty-six, he had grown so dissatisfied with poor translations of Buddhist works that he resolved to travel to Northern India to discover original Sanskrit texts. Since international travel was forbidden by the Tang dynasty Emperor Emperor Taizong (r. 626-649), Xuan Zang disguised himself and joined a group of Central Asian merchants heading west along the Silk Road. Seventeen years later in 645, having travelled through sixteen countries, he returned to China's capital at Chang'an (modern day Xi'an). There he wrote the Record of the Western Regions, a detailed description of his travels which provided the authorities with up to date information about Central Asian countries. The Emperor authorized a translation of the new Sanskrit texts and constructed the Big Goose Pagoda, according to an Indian design, in which to store them. Zhang Yichao Zhang Yichao was an ethnically Han Chinese general who retrieved the Dunhuang region for the Tang dynasty (618-907) from occupying Tibetan forces. During the Tang dynasty the Dunhuang region was known as Shazhou (Place of Sand). In 755, two major insurrections deep within the Chinese heartland forced the Tang Emperor to recall his crack troops from their stations in Shazhou. As a result, the area was left relatively unprotected and after an eleven year battle, in 766, Tibetan forces moved in. According to Chinese histories, the Tibetan occupation was a time of dismal suffering for local ethnically Han Chinese, and it was not before there was a local uprising in 848 that the local Chinese aristocrat Zhang Yichao was able to take advantage of the disturbances to lead an army to victory over the Tibetans. The Zhang family continued to rule the region until 920 when leadership was transferred to the Cao family. To see a mural of Zhang Yichao, please click here. Back To Top Religious Buddhas The deities presented typically focus on one of the three categories. (1) Episodes of the historic Buddha's life story (2) Buddhas of the past, present and future (3) Trikaya Episodes of the historic Buddha's life story Sakyamuni or "sage of the Sakyas" was the son of the chief of the "Sakyas", a North Indian warrior caste. Known as the historical Buddha, Prince Siddartha Gautama lived for 80 years between the seventh and sixth centuries BCE. He fled his home at the age of 29 to seek enlightenment. His life story, from the augury of his birth to his enlightenment to cremation provides the content for much Buddhist art around the world. The italicisation in the following synopsis indicates the most frequently painted episodes of his life story. One night, Siddartha's future mother dreamed a bodhisattva riding a white elephant descended upon her in the midst of celestial music . Court gurus interpreted the dream as indicating a deity had entered into the queen's womb. It soon transpired that the queen was indeed pregnant. Shortly afterwards, the queen upon raising her right arm, gave birth to a son, Siddhartha, from her right side . A lotus blossomed in each of the seven footsteps the newborn took in the four directions . Nature rejoiced at the birth with thirty-two auspicious miracles such as all the rivers purifying themselves and five hundred cattle giving birth. The young prince was not happy however, and so the king arranged for him to compete in a contest to wed a local princess. On the way to the contest, a white elephant blocked the city gate until young Prince Siddhartha hurled the elephant away . During the competition with his clever cousin Ananda for the princess' hand, Siddhartha shot his arrow through seven iron drums (sometimes this story has the arrows going through trees rather than iron drums) . In spite of this marriage, and two subsequent ones that his father arranged to cheer him up, the prince remained depressed. The king tried to distract him with a trip. On this excursion outside the sheltered precincts of the palace, the prince saw an old man by the city's east gate, a sick person at its south gate, a funeral at the west gate and a monk at the north gate . In the nearby countryside he was pained to see animals and birds preying upon each other. Having been shaken to the core by the sight of life's fundamental problems as well as the doorway to spiritual quest, the prince rode on horseback from the palace, donned a monk's robes and cut off his hair (renouncing his former values). Meeting with five young monks, Sakyamuni sought enlightenment through meditation and strict penance, almost fasting himself to death . At the last moment, Sakyamuni realized that penance was disabling rather than helping him achieve his goal and he split with the group. Thereafter, Sakyamuni resolved to meditate until he was enlightened, his pursuit complicated by the aggressions of the evil spirit Mara. On the threshold of enlightenment Mara asked by what right Sakyamuni sought enlightenment, at which point the meditative Sakymuni, sitting with his left hand in his lap gestured towards the earth with his right and thereby overcame Mara's last obstacle to attain enlightenment . The Buddha (enlightened one), seeing the ignorance around him at first decided not to teach other people the dharma (Buddhist law). However, convinced to do so by some deities, he gave his first sermon to his five former associates and a group of deer at Sarnath . His teachings spread and his popularity grew so that he came to lead a band of disciples. On a day when there was a great deal of discord amongst his disciples the Buddha retreated to a forest where an elephant served him. Seeing this, a monkey atop a nearby tree, descended to offer him honey . After the monkey cleared the bees from the proffered honey, the Buddha accepted it thereby pleasing the monkey. The Buddha went to visit his father to teach him dharma and reconcile their differences. After, he ascended to the Tushita heaven to visit his mother, who had died shortly after childbirth. He is often painted descending a ladder from heaven after this visit. After many years of teaching, Buddha finally left the world to enter nirvana. Commonly, the Buddha is presented lain on his side (sleeping Buddha) surrounded by sad disciples and followers . The concluding episode of this pictography refers to the cremation of the Buddha's body following which his remains were divided amongst 8 stupas. Buddha of the Three Periods When the Buddha (Sakyamuni) was about to pass away, he said, "I am not the first Buddha to come upon earth, nor shall I be the last. Previously there were many Buddhas who appeared in this world. In due time, another Buddha will arise in this world, a Holy One, a Supremely Enlightened One, endowed with wisdom, in auspicious conduct, knowing the universe, an incomparable leader of men, a master of devas and men. He will reveal to you the same Eternal Truths, which I have taught you. He will proclaim a religious life, wholly perfect and pure, such as I now proclaim. He will be known as Maitreya, which means kindness or friendliness." Sakyamuni preached that he was the seventh in a line of Buddhas. His predecessors' names, in order are, Vipasyin, Sikhin, Visabhu, Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni and Kasyapa. As explained above, the Buddha of the future is Maitreya. Often portrayed as a fat, genial laughing fellow, he is said at present to be preaching in the Tushita Heaven, preparing for his eventual descent to earth in human form in approximately 1,500 years time, i.e. 4,000 years after the nirvana (enlightenment) of the Sakyamuni Buddha. Trikaya The Three Body Doctrine developed in conjunction with the Mahayana school of Buddhism. It is a re-interpretation of the Buddha, identifying him with three bodies - one of appearance, enjoyment and dharma (Buddhist law). These three bodies refer to three different dimensions, which in a simplified form might be related to the hierarchy of existence (Sakyamuni Buddha; the historical Buddha), spirit (Avalokiteshvara Bodhisattva; an enlightener) and ultimate essence (Amitabha Buddha, the Buddha of infinite light & perfect perception). Back To Top Bodhisattvas The term bodhisattva has different meanings depending on whether the local culture is more influenced by Mahayana or Theravada Buddhism. In China, a country where Mahayana Buddhism is the norm, a bodhisattva is a being who has renounced the ultimate state of enlightenment out of compassion for the salvation of all other sentient beings. (In Theravada Buddhism, a bodhisattva refers to someone on the path to enlightenment.) In India, bodhisattvas were painted nude, as idealized presentations of the male and female forms. When these images were transported to China, local painters muted their bold sexuality. The bodhisattvas were adapted to Confucianist ethical stereotypes. Clothed in long gowns, their sanctity was strongly defined as sexless and ageless. By the Sui dynasty (581-618) a process of feminization had begun. Bodhisattvas were ever more commonly depicted with female bodies. From the early Tang dynasty (618-781), particularly in paintings of Buddhist paradises, the beauty of the female bodhisattvas was continually emphasized. Soon bodhisattva images were being compared with palace beauties and vice-versa. It seemed that artists became more concerned with satisfying viewers' desire to see bodhisattvas as beautiful women than in depicting their innate qualities. To see a mural of Bodhisattvas, please click here. Avalokiteshvara This, the bodhisattva of Compassion, is the most popular of the Bodhisattvas, especially in China. Originally male in his depictions at the Mogao Caves, Avalokiteshvara was associated with the mother of the human race and soon came to be venerated in China and painted at the Mogao Caves in the female form of Guanyin. When depicted in male form, Avalokiteshvara is usually standing dressed in gems and jewels. As Guanyin, she holds a short white vase in which stands a lotus. Manjusri Sakyamuni, the historic Buddha, often appears together with the Bodhisattvas Manjusri and Samantabhadra. Manjusri was the initiator and the master of buddhas of past ages and, it is anticipated, will be the mentor of the future Buddha, Maitreya. The Bodhisattva of Marvelous Virtue and Gentle Majesty, representing wisdom intelligence and willpower, he is often depicted with a lion. Samantabhadra Samantabhadra represents universal virtue. Exemplary in observing the transcendental practices and vows of the Buddha, he is customarily depicted with a six-tusked elephant under him. The six tusks represent the six qualities that lead to enlightenment: charity, morality, patience, energy, meditation and wisdom. Back To Top Illustration of Stories Jataka Fables Jataka fables tell of the Buddha's previous births in various human and animal forms. Since space does not allow for a complete listing of the jataka fables featured at the Mogao Caves, the synopsis of three popular stories will be introduced. King Chandraprabha Offers His Head to the Heretic King Chandraprabha was such a benevolent ruler that he incurred the jealousy of the neighboring King Pinosina. The latter offered half his kingdom and his daughter in marriage to anyone who could bring him his rival's head. The heretic, Raudraksha, took up this challenge, overcoming many obstacles to get to the royal palace. Knowing of the intensity of King Chandraprabha's faith (i.e. his Buddhist yearning to divorce himself from desire and suffering induced by love of the self), Raudraksha simply begged the king to volunteer his head. Moved by his profound faith, the king agreed to "abandon this sinful head to fetch Raudraksha a fortune", at which point the heretic raised his sword to sever the prized head from the king's body. However, the Tree God interceded on the king's behalf paralyzing the heretic's limbs. "Stop!" The King Chandraprabha pleaded. "I have offered my head as alms 999 times under this very tree. This will be the thousandth time that I shall offer it. Please do not stop him." Whereupon Raudraksha, released from the spell, succeeded in severing the king's head. King Chandraprabha won himself great merit in his search for enlightenment, whilst Raudraksha won himself great demerit in his pursuit of sensuous pleasures. Prince Sattva Feeds Himself to the Hungry Tigress The king had three sons, the youngest of whom was named Sattva. One day when they all went to the forest, Prince Sattva saw a tigress so hungry that she was about to eat her own cubs. Resolved to prevent this abomination, the prince stretched himself out before the tigress for her to eat. The tigress, however, was too weak to do so. Prince Sattva used a stick to pierce his neck and dripped his blood into the tigress' mouth. This gave the tigress the energy to feast on the rest of his body. When the prince's brothers came upon the remains of Sattva's body, they understood the nature of their younger brother's sacrifice and built a stupa to his memory. The Nine-colored Deer Saves the Drowning Man A man was saved from drowning by a beautiful nine-colored deer with silver horns. By way of thanks the man offered to become the deer's slave, but the deer refused asking in return only that the man keep the astonishingly beautiful deer's whereabouts secret. Soon after, the queen dreaming of the nine-colored deer, asked the king to make her a dress of its skin. The next day the kindly king issued an edict offering wealth and land to anyone who could help capture the deer. Overcome by greed, the man who had been rescued by the deer, told the king its secret location. The nine-colored deer lay sleeping as the king approached, accompanied by a squadron of troops and the informant. Seeing his friend in such danger, the crow squawked loudly to rouse the deer from its slumber. However, by the time it realized its plight, it was too late; the deer was surrounded. Angrily, the deer reproached the king's informant for breaking his promise of keeping its whereabouts secret after it had saved his life. Hearing of his informant's dishonorable conduct made the king indignant. Rather than be associated with such base treachery, he ordered the deer released and the informant punished. His queen, deprived of her dress, died in fury. Back To Top Hetuprataya Stories This category of stories extols the magical powers of the Buddha in coming to the rescue of suffering beings. Again, space limits us to a few examples. Lady Sumati invokes the Buddha Lady Sumati, a follower of Buddha, was married to a wealthy non-believer named Anabindi. On the occasion of his son's marriage, Anabandi arranged a celebratory banquet to which he invited 6,000 non-believers. On seeing these heretics, Lady Sumati refused to attend the banquet. Only when her husband acquiesced to her inviting her guru Sakyamuni did she relent and agree to participate in the celebrations. Lady Sumati burnt incense from her bedroom's balcony to summon the Buddha, and the guests went outside to watch his descent. As soon as the Buddha smelt this offering of incense, he first sent his disciple Gandha with a huge cauldron, after which followed each of his ten chief disciples transformed into 500 flowering trees, calves, peacocks and garudas or else riding 500 dragons, swans, tigers, lions, horses and elephants or with 500 beryl mountains. Sakyamuni, the historical Buddha, was the last to descend. He used magical powers to subdue the heretics and all the members of Sumati's family became his disciples. Conversion of the 500 Robbers 500 robbers terrorized the kingdom of Magadha. The King therefore sent out a large army, captured them and, as punishment, mutilated their nose, ears and eyes. Banished to the forests, the robbers' cries were heard by the Buddha, who used medicine to restore their sight. After hearing the Buddha preach, they took holy vows and became monks. To see a details of the robbers, please click here. Bhiksuni Suksma Speaks of Her Experiences Having married well and borne a child, Suksma on the occasion of her second pregnancy decided to travel with her family to visit her parents. En route her husband was bitten by a poisonous snake and died. Despite this she continued with her children to her parents. While she was helping her children cross a river a wolf gored her youngest child on one bank of the river, whilst her eldest was drowned crossing from the other. Soon after, she learned from a friend of her family that her parents had been burnt alive by a fire. Despite her intense grief, a few years later she married again, but late one night her husband returned home drunk and killed their new infant child. She ran away before he could proceed to harm her. Living in a cemetery, she met a widower, fell in love with him and remarried. After seven days her new husband died of illness and, in accordance with the local tradition, she was buried alive with him. Before she suffocated, a group of robbers plundering the grave that night freed her. Attracted by her beauty the robber chief made her his wife. However, when caught by the government he was beheaded for his crimes, and once again Suksma was buried alive with her husband. This time hungry wolves dug up the grave. Thereupon the Buddha appeared and ordained her as one of his primary disciples. Back To Top Sutras (Teachings) Buddhism posits that ultimate trust cannot be communicated, and so sutra paintings limit themselves to conveying the principle ideas of a sutra so as to assist the seeker's discovery of the truth. Traditionally, sutras were communicated orally as group chants. Only in the first century B.C.E. were they noted down. At that time, the written word was considered secondary to group chants as a means for accurately passing down the Buddha's teachings. Literacy was never stressed in the development of Buddhism and so sutra paintings were a comparatively significant means of preserving the Buddhist cultural canon. As a result, today, the walls of the Mogao Caves hold the only trace of some sutras, whose chants and written record have been lost. Sutras became a subject of Mogao Cave murals from the Sui dynasty (581-618). During the Tang dynasty (618-907), they were a main focus. The best-known murals are those of the Western Paradise of Amitabha sutra, painted during the High Tang (712-781). The Western Paradise Of Amitabha Amitabha is the Buddha presiding over the Western Paradise, a Buddhist utopian ideal. This paradise is the most popular subject of the Mogao Caves murals. Amitabha sits on a lotus throne at the center of the paradise. By his side are the Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara and the historical Buddha along with other bodhisattvas. The composition is structured around a pond at the center and a series of palatial mansions at the back. Abundance, being an axiomatic feature of paradise, there is a surfeit of dancers, musicians, animals and other celestial beings populating the mural. Saddharma-pundarika or Lotus Sutra The Lotus Sutra was of particular importance within China as it stressed the importance of faith above all characteristics in the Buddhist endeavor. So doing, it opened the way for the Tiantai Buddhist sect, which advanced the case for female monks. Of the 28 chapters only a few have been illustrated. Owing to the popularity of Avalokiteshvara, the sutra's opening chapter "the universal power of Avalokiteshvara" is the most frequently painted. The bodhisattva is portrayed with Buddha in the center of the composition surrounded by small tableaux of other events in this chapter. Perhaps because of its relevance to Chinese culture, paintings of this sutra tend to contain scenes of daily life, such as houses, travelers, sea voyages, medical treatment and religious activities. Maitreya Sutra The Buddha of the future, Maitreya, is typically shown in one of two scenes - reincarnated in the Tushita heaven or else becoming the Buddha in future years. Some paintings combine both scenes in upper and lower sections. Below the Maitreya Buddha is usually a banner decorated with seven sorts of gems, symbolizing the impermanence of life in contrast to nirvana as the source of ultimate happiness. Images of the paradise of Maitreya feature such miracles as nectar gushing from the earth, garments for the poor growing from trees and plentiful showers providing seven crops in one season, amongst others. Back To Top Traditional Chinese Mythological Themes The incorporation of traditional figures from Chinese mythology in Buddhist grottoes is another aspect of the syncretism of Buddhism in traditional Chinese culture. The following traditional Daoist figures are prominently featured at the Buddhist Mogao Caves. Gods & Goddesses The Queen Mother of the West (Xiwangmu): Portrayed as a loving mother, often flanked by six ladies in waiting, she is associated with childbirth and medicine. Prince Of The East (Dongwanggong): Paired with Queen Mother of the West, but not as powerful a figure. Fuxi & Nuwa: Male and female figures, whose lower halves are snake-like and upper halves human, Fuxi and Nuwa are important primordial gods associated with music. Fuxi married and coupled with his younger sister Nuwa to beget the Chinese people. Gods Of Natural Phenomena: Thunder God (Lei Gong) gyrates to his drumbeat. Lightning God (Pidian) wields his anvil. Wind God (Feilian) has a deer's head and wings. Rain God (Yushi) spurts clouds and mist before it. Back To Top Celestial Animals Represented are the guardian angels of the four directions, namely Xuanwu half-tortoise half-snake; Baihu, a white tiger; Zhuque, a red bird; and Qinglong, a blue dragon. Back To Top